auctionbin.com Information about Common Era
Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is a designation for the calendar system most commonly used in the Western world, and also internationally, for numbering the year part of the date. The numbering of years is identical to that used in the Anno Domini (AD) system, with 2009 being the current year in both systems and neither using a year zero.[1] Common Era is also known as Christian Era[2] and Current Era,[3] with all three expressions abbreviated as CE.[4] (Christian Era is, however, also abbreviated AD, for Anno Domini.) Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for "Before the Common Era", "Before the Christian Era", or "Before the Current Era".[5] Both the AD/BC and CE/BCE systems are based on a sixth century estimate for the year in which Jesus was conceived or born; with common era designation originating among Christians in Europe at least as early as 1615 (at first in Latin).[6] The Gregorian calendar, and the year numbering system associated with it, is the calendar system with most widespread usage in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. Common Era notation has been adopted in several non-Christian cultures, by many scholars in religious studies and other academic fields,[7][8] and by others wishing to be sensitive to non-Christians,[9] because Common Era does not explicitly make use of religious titles for Jesus, such as Christ and Lord, which are used in the AD/BC notation.[10][7][11][12] Some proponents of the BC/AD system have criticized the use of BCE and CE as being the "the result of secularization" and "political correctness".[13] The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which traditionally precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all).[14] Thus, the current year is written as 2009 in both systems (or, if further clarity is needed, as 2009 CE, or as AD 2009), and the year that Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD system). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., "BCE" or "C.E.").[15] The year numbering system for the Common Era was devised by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in the year 525 to replace the Diocletian years, because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians.[16] He attempted to number years from an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus[16] although scholars generally believe that Jesus was born before AD 1.[17][18] Dionysius labeled the column of the Easter table in which he introduced the new era "Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi"[19] Numbering years in this manner became more widespread with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before the supposed year of birth[20] of Jesus, and the practice of not using a year zero.[21] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius.[22] The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as "Vulgar[23] Era" (from the Latin word vulgus, the common people, i.e. those who are not royalty), to distinguish it from the Regnal dating systems typically used in national law. The first use of the Latin equivalent (vulgaris aerae)[24] discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler.[6] Kepler uses it again in a 1617 table of ephemerides.[25] A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English - so far, the earliest-found usage of Vulgar Era in English.[26] A 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6".[27] A 1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, "before the beginning of the vulgar æra, by which we now compute the years from his incarnation."[28][29] A 1796 book uses the term "vulgar era of the nativity".[30] The first so-far-discovered usage of "Christian Era" is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the title page of a 1584 theology book.[31] In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac.[32] A 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of "Christian Era".[33] The English phrase "common Era" appears at least as early as 1715 in a book on astronomy, used synonymously with Christian Era and Vulgar Era.[34] A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews.[35] Common era and vulgar era are used as synonyms in 1770, in a translation of a book originally written in German.[36] The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously.[37] In 1835, in his book Living Oracles, Alexander Campbell, wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days",[38] and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era..."[39] The Catholic Encyclopedia uses the sentence: "Foremost among these [various eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living."[22] During the 19th century, "Vulgar Era" came to be contrasted with "Christian Era", and "vulgar" came to mean "crudely indecent", thus no longer a synonym for "common". The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a generic sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews",[40][41] "the common era of the Mahometans",[42] "common era of the world",[43] "the common era of the foundation of Rome".[44] When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation",[45] "common era of the Nativity",[46] or "common era of the birth of Christ".[47] Some Jewish academics were already using the CE and BCE abbreviations by the mid-19th century, such as in 1856, when Rabbi and historian, Morris Jacob Raphall used the abbreviation in his book, Post-Biblical History of The Jews.[48] An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.[49] The terms "Common Era", "Anno Domini", "Before the Common Era" and "Before Christ" can be applied to dates that rely on either the Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar. Modern dates are understood in the Western world to be in the Gregorian calendar, but for older dates writers should specify the calendar used. Dates in the Gregorian calendar have always used the Common Era, but over the millennia a wide variety of eras have been used with the Julian calendar. Although the Jewish people have their own Hebrew calendar, they often find it convenient to use the Gregorian Calendar as well. The reasons for some using Common Era notation are described below: Jews do not generally use the words "A.D." and "B.C." to refer to the years on the Gregorian calendar. "A.D." means "the year of our L-rd," [sic] and we do not believe Jesus is the L-rd [sic]. Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era).[50] Indeed, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for "more than a century".[51] Some American academics in the fields of education and history have adopted CE and BCE notation, although there is some disagreement.[52] The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, which is the leading publishing body of the Jehovah's Witnesses, uses CE and BCE exclusively in its publications.[53] More visible uses of Common Era notation have recently surfaced at major museums in the English-speaking world: The Smithsonian Institution prefers Common Era usage, though individual museums are not required to use it.[54] Furthermore, several style guides now prefer or mandate its usage.[55] Even some style guides for Christian churches prefer its use: for example, the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News.[56] In the United States, the usage of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks is growing.[51] Some publications have moved over to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch over to the BCE/CE usage, ending a 138-year usage of the traditional BC/AD dating system. It is used by the College Board in its history tests,[57] by the Norton Anthology of English Literature, and by the United States Naval Observatory.[58] Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism.[59] In June 2006, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision that would have included the designations BCE and CE as part of state law, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of discretion at the local level.[60][61][62] In some formerly Communist, predominantly Christian societies, the designation New Era (or Our Era) was encouraged by Communist authorities to replace BC and AD. In Bulgaria, for example, пр.н.е. (преди новата ера, before the new era, or преди нашата ера, before our era) and н.е. (от новата ера, of the new era, or от нашата ера, of our era) are still widely used by atheists/agnostics instead of traditional пр.Хр. (преди Христа, Before Christ) and сл.Хр. (след Христа, After Christ), which were unofficially reinstituted after the Communist period.[citation needed] Chinese use the term "Common Era (公元)." A range of arguments has been presented both for and against the use of CE and BCE in place of AD and BC. Supporters of Common Era notation promote it as a religiously neutral notation suited for cross-cultural communication due to compatibility with religious toleration and religious pluralism. Arguments for using the Common Era designation include: Efforts to replace AD/BC notation with CE/BCE notation have given rise to opposition. Opposition arguments favoring AD/BC include: Other arguments opposing the use of CE/BCE include: According to a New York Times report, it was a student's use of CE/BCE notation, inspired by its use within Wikipedia, which prompted the history teacher Andrew Schlafly to found Conservapedia, a cultural conservative wiki.[74] One of its "Conservapedia Commandments" is that users must always apply BC/AD notation, since its sponsors perceive BCE/CE notation to "deny the historical basis" of the dating system.[75] Clock · Horology · History of timekeeping devices · Astrarium · Marine chronometer · Sundial · Water clock Calendar · Day · Week · Month · Year · Tropical year · Julian · Gregorian · Islamic Arrow of time · Chronon · Fourth dimension · Planck epoch · Planck time · Time domain Egyptian · Sothic cycle · Hindu units of measurement · Hindu Yugas Gregorian · Proleptic Gregorian · Old Style and New Style Lunisolar · Solar · Lunar · Islamic · Chinese sexagenary cycle Dating methodology Absolute dating · Incremental dating · Archaeomagnetic dating · Dendrochronology · Glottochronology · Ice core · Lichenometry · Paleomagnetism · Radiocarbon dating · Radiometric dating · Tephrochronology · Thermoluminescence dating · Uranium-lead dating Relative dating · Seriation · Stratification

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